Steel Design

STEEL BEAM DESIGN Laterally Unrestrained Beam Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 1 Non-dimensional slenderness Beam behaviour analogous to yielding/buckling of columns. M Wyfy Material yielding (in-plane bending) MEd MEd Elastic member buckling Mcr Lcr 1. 0 Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Non-dimensional slenderness Unrestrained Beam ? LT 2 Lateral torsional buckling Lateral torsional buckling Lateral torsional buckling is the member buckling mode associated with slender beams loaded about their major axis, without continuous lateral restraint.If continuous lateral restraint is provided to the beam, then lateral torsional buckling will be prevented and failure will occur in another mode, generally in-plane bending (and/or shear). Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 3 Eurocode 3 Eurocode 3 states, as with BS 5950, that both crosssectional and member bending resistance must be verified: MEd ? Mc ,Rd Cross-section check (In-plane bending) MEd ? Mb,Rd Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unr estrained Beam Member buckling check 4 Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 5 Laterally Unrestrained BeamThe design of beam in this Lecture 3 is considering beams in which either no lateral restraint or only intermittent lateral restraint is provided to the compression flange Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 6 Lateral Torsional Buckling Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 7 Lateral Torsional Buckling Figure 3-1 shows an unrestrained beam subjected to load increment. The compression flange unrestrained and beam is not stiff enough. There is a tendency for the beam to deform sideways and twist about the longitudinal axis. The failure mode which may occur to the beam is called lateral torsional buckling.Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 8 ?Involves both deflection and twisting rotation ?Out-of plane buckling. Bending Resistance M c, Rd ? M pl ? W pl f y ?M0 Due to the effect of LTB, the bending resistance of cross section become less. Failure may occurs earlier then expected Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 9 Examples of Laterally Unrestrained Beam Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 10 Restrained Beam Comparsion Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 11 Intermittent Lateral Restrained Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 12Torsional restraint Usually both flanges are held in their relative positions by external members during bending. May be provided by load bearing stiffeners or provision of adequate end connection details. See Figure 3-4. Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 13 Beam without torsional restraint Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 14 Can be discounted when: †¢ Minor axis bending †¢ CHS, SHS, circular or square bar †¢ Fully laterally restrained beams †¢ ? LT< 0. 2 (or 0. 4 in some cases) – Unrestrained length Cross-sectional shape End restrained condition The moment along the beam Loading – tension or compression Unrestrained Beam 16Dr. A Azi z Saim 2010 EC3 Lateral torsional buckling resistance Checks should be carried out on all unrestrained segments of beams (between the points where lateral restraint exists). Lateral restraint Lateral restraint Lcr = 1. 0 L Lateral restraint Beam on plan Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 17 Three methods to check LTB in EC3: †¢ The primary method adopts the lateral torsional buckling curves given by equations 6. 56 and 6. 57, and is set out in clause 6. 3. 2. 2 (general case) and clause 6. 3. 2. 3 (for rolled sections and equivalent welded sections). The second is a simplified assessment method for beams with restraints in buildings, and is set out in clause 6. 3. 2. 4. †¢ The third is a general method for lateral and lateral torsional buckling of structural components, given in clause 6. 3. 4. Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 18 Eurocode 3 states, as with BS 5950, that both cross-sectional and member bending resistance must be verified: MEd ? Mc ,Rd Cros s-section check (In-plane bending) MEd ? Mb,Rd Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam Member buckling check 19 Lateral-torsional buckling Eurocode 3 design approach for lateral torsional buckling is analogous to the olumn buckling treatment. The design buckling resistance Mb,Rd of a laterally unrestrained beam (or segment of beam) should be taken as: Mb,Rd ? ?LT Wy fy ? M1 Reduction factor for LTB Lateral torsional buckling resistance: Mb,Rd = ?LT Wy fy ? M1 Equation (6. 55) Wy will be Wpl,y or Wel,y ?LT Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 is the reduction factor for lateral torsional buckling Unrestrained Beam 21 Buckling curves – general case (Cl 6. 3. 2. 2) Lateral torsional buckling curves for the general case are given below : (as in Eq (6. 56)) ?LT ? 1 2 ? LT ? ?LT ? ?2 LT but ? LT ? 1. 0 ?LT ? 0. 5 [ 1 ? ?LT (? LT ? 0. ) ? ?2 ] LT Plateau length Imperfection factor from Table 6. 3 Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 22 Imperfection factor ? LT Imperfection factors ? LT for 4 buckling curves: (refer Table 6. 3) Buckling curve Imperfection factor ? LT a 0. 21 b 0. 34 c 0. 49 d 0. 76 Buckling curve selection For the general case, refer to Table 6. 4: Cross-section Rolled I-sections Welded Isections Limits h/b ? 2 h/b > 2 h/b ? 2 h/b > 2 – Buckling curve a b c d d Other crosssections Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 24 LTB curves 4 buckling curves for LTB (a, b, c and d) 1. 2 Reduction factor ? LT . 0 0. 8 0. 6 0. 4 0. 2 0. 0 0 0. 5 1 1. 5 Curve a Curve b Curve c Curve d 2 2. 5 0. 2 Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Non-dimensional slenderness Unrestrained Beam ?LT 25 Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 26 lateral torsional buckling slenderness ? LT Mcr ? Wy f y Mcr Elastic critical buckling moment Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 27 Non-dimensional slenderness †¢ Calculate lateral torsional buckling slenderness: ? LT ? Wy f y Mcr †¢ Buckling curves as for compression (except curve a0) †¢ Wy depends on section classification †¢ Mcr is the elastic critical LTB moment Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3Unrestrained Beam 28 BS EN 1993-1-1 does not give a method for determining the elastic critical moment for lateraltorsional buckling Mcr !!!!!!!! May use ‘LTBeam’ software (can be downloaded from CTICM website) Or may use method presented by L. Gardner †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 29 Mcr under uniform moment For typical end conditions, and under uniform moment the elastic critical lateral torsional buckling moment Mcr is: Mcr ,0 G IT Iw Iz Lcr ? EIz ? 2 Lcr 2 ? Iw Lcr GIT ? ? ? 2 ? ? EIz ? ? Iz 2 0. 5 is the shear modulus is the torsion constant is the warping constant is the inor axis second moment of area is the buckling length of the beam Unrestrained Beam 30 Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Mcr under non-uniform moment Numerical solutions have been calculated for a number of other loading conditions. For uniform doubly-symmetric cross-sections, loaded through the shear centre at the level of the centroidal axis, and with the standard conditions of restraint described, Mcr may be calculated by: ? EIz Mcr ? C1 2 Lcr 2 Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam ? Iw Lcr GIT ? ? ? 2 ? ? EIz ? ? Iz 2 0. 5 31 C1 factor – end momentsFor end moment loading C1 may be approximated by the equation below, though other approximations also exist. C1= 1. 88 – 1. 40y + 0. 52y2 but C1 ? 2. 70 where y is the ratio of the end moments (defined in the following table). Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 32 C1 factor – transverse loading Loading and support conditions Bending moment diagram Value of C1 1. 132 1. 285 1. 365 1. 565 1. 046 Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 33 Design procedure for LTB Design procedure for LTB: 1. Determine BMD and SFD from design loads 2. Select section and determine geometry 3. Classify cross-section (Class 1, 2, 3 or 4) 4.Determine effective (buckling) length Lcr – depends on bounda ry conditions and load level 5. Calculate Mcr and Wyfy Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 34 Design procedure for LTB 6. Non-dimensional slenderness ? LT ? Wy fy Mcr 7. Determine imperfection factor ? LT 8. Calculate buckling reduction factor ? LT 9. Design buckling resistance 10. Check Mb,Rd ? ?LT Wy fy ? M1 MEd ? 1. 0 Mb,Rd for each unrestrained portion Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 35 LTB Example General arrangement Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 36 LTB Example Design loading is as follows: 425. 1 kN A B C 319. 6 kN D 2. 5 m 3. 2 m 5. 1 mLoading Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 37 LTB Example 267. 1 kN A B D 52. 5 kN SF C 477. 6 kN Shear force diagram B A C D BM 1194 kNm 1362 kNm Bending moment diagram Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 38 LTB Example For the purposes of this example, lateral torsional buckling curves for the general case will be utilised. Lateral torsional buckling checks to be carried out on segments BC and CD. By inspection, segment AB is not critical. Try 762? 267? 173 UB in grade S 275 steel. Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 39 LTB Example b z tw h d y y r z tf h = 762. 2 mm b = 266. 7 mm tw = 14. 3 mm tf = 21. 6 mm r = 16. mm A = 22000 mm2 Wy,pl = 6198? 103 mm3 Iz = 68. 50? 106 mm4 It = 2670? 103 mm4 Iw = 9390? 109 mm6 Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 40 LTB Example For a nominal material thickness (tf = 21. 6 mm and tw = 14. 3 mm) of between 16 mm and 40 mm the nominal values of yield strength fy for grade S 275 steel (to EN 10025-2) is 265 N/mm2. From clause 3. 2. 6: N/mm2. E = 210000 N/mm2 and G ? 81000 Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 41 LTB Example Cross-section classification (clause 5. 5. 2): e ? 235 / fy ? 235 / 265 ? 0. 94 Outstand flanges (Table 5. 2, sheet 2) cf = (b – tw – 2r) / 2 = 109. 7 mm cf / tf = 109. 7 / 21. 6 = 5. 8 Limit for Class 1 flange = 9e = 8. 48 > 5. 08 ? Flange is Class 1 Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Bea m 42 LTB Example Web – internal part in bending (Table 5. 2, sheet 1) cw = h – 2tf – 2r = 686. 0 mm cw / tw= 686. 0 / 14. 3 = 48. 0 Limit for Class 1 web = 72 e = 67. 8 > 48. 0 ? Web is Class 1 Overall cross-section classification is therefore Class 1. Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 43 LTB Example Bending resistance of cross-section (clause 6. 2. 5): Mc ,y,Rd ? Wpl,y fy ? M0 for Class 1 and 2 sec tions 6198 ? 103 ? 265 ? ? 1642 ? 106 Nmm 1. 0 ? 1642 kNm ? 1362 kNm ? Cross-section resistance in bending is OK.Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 44 LTB Example Lateral torsional buckling check (clause 6. 3. 2. 2) – Segment BC: MEd ? 1362 kNm Mb ,Rd ? ? LT Wy fy ? M1 where Wy = Wpl,y for Class 1 and 2 sections Determine Mcr for segment BC (Lcr = 3200 mm) Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 ? EIz Mcr ? C1 2 Lcr 2 ? Iw Lcr GIT ? ? ? 2 ? ? EIz ? ? Iz Unrestrained Beam 2 0. 5 45 LTB Example For end moment loading C1 may be approximated from: C1 = 1. 88 â⠂¬â€œ 1. 40y + 0. 52y2 but C1 ? 2. 70 1194 y is the ratio of the end moments ? ? 0. 88 1362 ? C1 ? 1. 05 ? 2 ? 210000 ? 68. 5 ? 106 Mcr ? 1. 05 ? 32002 ? 9390 ? 109 32002 ? 81000 ? 2670 ? 103 ? ? ? 68. 5 ? 106 ? 2 ? 210000 ? 68. 5 ? 106 ? ? 0. 5 = 5699Ãâ€"106 Nmm = 5699 kNm Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 46 LTB Example Non-dimensional lateral torsional slenderness for segment BC: ? LT ? Wy fy Mcr 6198 ? 103 ? 265 ? ? 0. 54 6 5699 ? 10 Select buckling curve and imperfection factor ? LT: From Table 6. 4: h/b = 762. 2/266. 7 = 2. 85 For a rolled I-section with h/b > 2, use buckling curve b Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 47 LTB Example From Table 6. 3 of EN 1993-1-1: For buckling curve b, ? LT = 0. 34 Calculate reduction factor for lateral torsional buckling, ? LT – Segment BC: ?LT ? 1 ? LT ? ? 2 LT LT but ? LT ? 1. 0 where ? LT ? 0. 5 [ 1 ? ?LT (? LT ? 0. 2) ? ?2 ] LT Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 48 LTB Example ?LT = 0. 5[1+0. 34(0. 54-0. 2) + 0. 542] = 0. 70 ? ? LT ? 1 0. 70 ? 0. 70 ? 0. 54 2 2 ? 0. 87 Lateral torsional buckling resistance Mb,Rd – Segment BC : Mb,Rd ? ? LT Wy fy ? M1 265 ? 0. 87 ? 6198 ? 10 ? 1 . 0 3 ? 1425 ? 106 Nmm ? 1425 kNm Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 49 LTB Example MEd 1362 ? ? 0. 96 ? 1. 0 ? Segment BC is OK Mb,Rd 1425 Lateral torsional buckling check (clause 6. 3. 2. 2) – Segment CD: MEd ? 1362 kNm Mb ,Rd ? ? LT Wy fy ? M1 where Wy = Wpl,y for Class 1 and 2 sectionsDetermine Mcr for segment CD (Lcr = 5100 mm) Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 50 LTB Example ? EIz Mcr ? C1 2 Lcr 2 ? Iw Lcr GIT ? ? ? 2 ? Iz ? EIz ? ? 2 0. 5 Determine y from Table: 0 y is the ratio of the end moments ? ?0 1362 ? C1 ? 1. 88 ? 2 ? 210000 ? 68. 5 ? 106 Mcr ? 1. 88 51002 ? 9390 ? 109 51002 ? 81000 ? 2670 ? 103 ? ? ? ? 68. 5 ? 106 ? 2 ? 210000 ? 68. 5 ? 106 ? ? 0. 5 = 4311? 106 Nmm = 4311 kNm Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 51 LTB Example Non-dimensional lateral torsio nal slenderness for segment CD: ? LT ? Wy fy Mcr 6198 ? 103 ? 265 ? ? 0. 62 6 4311? 10 The buckling curve and imperfection factor ?LT are as for segment BC. Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 52 LTB Example Calculate reduction factor for lateral torsional buckling, ? LT – Segment CD: ?LT ? 1 ? LT ? ? 2 LT 2 LT but ? LT ? 1. 0 where ? LT ? 0. 5 [ 1 ? ?LT (? LT ? 0. 2) ? ?2 ] LT = 0. 5[1+0. 34(0. 62-0. 2) + 0. 622] = 0. 76 ? ? LT Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 ? 1 0. 76 ? 0. 76 ? 0. 62 2 Unrestrained Beam 2 ? 0. 83 53 LTB Example Lateral torsional buckling resistance Mb,Rd – Segment CD : Mb,Rd ? ?LT Wy fy ? M1 265 ? 0. 83 ? 6198 ? 10 ? 1. 0 3 ? 1360 ? 106 Nmm ? 1360 kNm MEd 1362 ? ? 1. 00 Mb,Rd 1360 Segment CD is critical and marginally fails LTB check.Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 54 Blank Page Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 55 Simplified assessment of ? LT For hot-rolled doubly symmetric I and H sections without destabilising loads,? may be conservatively simplified to: LT ? LT ? 1 0. 9 ? z ? C1 ?z 1 0. 9 ? 1 C1 E ? z ? L / iz ; ? 1 ? ? fy As a further simplification, C1 may also be conservatively taken = 1. 0. Simplified assessment of ? LT Substituting in numerical values for simplified expressions result. ? 1 , the following S235 ? LT ? 1 L / iz C1 104 S275 ? LT ? 1 L / iz C1 96 S355 ? LT ? 1 L / iz C1 85 C1 may be conservatively taken = 1. , though the level of conservatism increases the more the actual bending moment diagram differs from uniform moment. Simplified method (Cl. 6. 3. 2. 4) Simplified method for beams with restraints in buildings (Clause 6. 3. 2. 4) This method treats the compression flange of the beam and part of the web as a strut: b b Compression h Tension Compression flange + 1/3 of the compressed area of web Strut Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Beam Unrestrained Beam 58 General method (Cl. 6. 3. 4) General method for lateral and lateral torsional buckling of structural components †¢ May be applied to single members, plane frames etc. Requires determination of plastic and elastic (buckling) resistance of structure, which subsequently defines global slenderness †¢ Generally requires FE Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 59 Blank Page Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 60 Important Notes: (End Connections) When full torsional restraint exist: -both the compression and tension flanges are fully restrained against rotation on plan -both flanges are partially restrained against rotation on plan – both flanges are free to rotate on plan Unrestrained Beam 61 Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Connection DetailDr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 62 Important Notes: (End Connections) Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 63 Important Notes: (End Connections) When both flanges are free to rotate on plan and the compression flange is unrestrained: i. torsional restraint is provided solely by connection of the tension flange to the supports, ii. torsional re straint is provided solely by dead bearing of the tension flange on support. Unrestrained Beam 64 Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 65 Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 66

Printing Press Consequences

The Consequences of a Forgotten Invention There have been people who have influenced every person in the world yet a seldom few know their contributions let alone their names. Of these people was a man named Johannes Gutenberg; the man who invented the printing press. The printing press is one of those inventions that most people take for granted and do not realize their importance. Without the press we would still be handwriting every single copy of any book every written and so the question is what were the main consequences of the printing press? That is, what happened as a result of the invention of the printing press?The answer is that it marked the transition from script to printing and it allowed the mass production of information, which in turn allowed ideas to spread quicker. The ability to have a mass production of information has transformed almost all aspects life and all fields of study. Two of these topics include religion and geography and exploration. This essay will first explain the importance of the transition from script to printing and then will go on to explain the impact the press had on literature and geography and exploration in order to elaborate on the latter consequence listed above.Perhaps the absolutely most important thing about the invention of the printing press is that it marked the transition from script to printing. As seen in Document A, whilst comparing the two images, the effect of Gutenberg’s invention is very clear. In the top visual, which shows the dictation method, it can be seen that the process is very lengthy and tiring. Also, only a few books are visible. Whereas, in the bottom visual, which shows the printing method, there are many papers in sight and the process seems to be a lot less time-consuming.From this it can be concluded that printing is a lot more efficient method of producing books and no longer required laborious hours of writing manuscripts. This conclusion can be supported by the next documen t: Document B. By looking at the maps it becomes apparent that the people back then also had similar opinions about the printing press as, with-in thirty years, the number of printing presses in Europe more than quintupled. In 1471, there were about a dozen presses but by the end of the century, there were upwards of 65 in the continent. However, Document C represents a contradicting opinion.This source claims that people still liked hand-written documents over those that were printed. This was bound to happen because, even like today, hand-made items are always considered more precious but the more practical solution will always prevail, which, in this case, was the printing press. In the subsequent paragraphs, the consequences of this transition on various aspects of life will be explained. ‘Gutenberg’s invention probably contributed more to destroying Christian concord and inflaming religious warfare than any of the so-called arts of war ever did. These twenty-four w ords written by Elizabeth Eisenstein in her book, ‘Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe,’ (Document E) perfectly describe the consequence of the printing press on religion. Around the same time as the birth of the printing press, a desire for reformation in the Church was also arising amongst the people. According to history, Martin Luther lit the fire of desire by posting his 95 Theses on a Church door. However, what is not being taken into account is that Luther’s ideas spread quickly solely because of the printing press, as John Man explains in Document D.Had his ideas not spread all over Europe with-in a month, reform would have come much later or perhaps never. Similar to Luther’s 95 Theses, the Polyglot Bible, which allowed ordinary people to understand the Bible as it was written in nine different languages, would not have spread around Europe so rapidly if it were not for the press. Both, the Polyglot Bible (Document G) and Luther’s 95 Theses (Document D), fueled the Protestant reform but would not have even close to as big of an impact if it were not for the printing press.The map in Document F verifies this statement because it shows how quickly Protestant ideas spread around Europe. In merely 60 years, Europe went from being completely Catholic to roughly half Protestant and half Catholic. This in itself further emphasizes how mass production of information allows ideas to be spread faster and therefore demonstrates the one of the consequences of the printing press. Along with the religious turmoil came times of great exploration. Partially credited to Renaissance ideals, Europeans began to explore the world. Perhaps the most famous explorer of all is Christopher Columbus.In 1492, he did indeed sail the ocean blue to discover the Americas. After Columbus, came other great sailors from various other European nations who explored other parts of the world. Believe it or not, the printing press served a great purp ose in exploration too. Columbus sent a letter to the King of Spain, which talked about the New World. According to Document H, this letter was translated and published over and over again and with-in a year it reached places as far as Antwerp. In the succeeding years Europeans embarked upon a great number of voyages.This indicates that Columbus’ letter was likely to have sparked curiosity or even jealously into the hearts of other Europeans and so they to began to explore the world. There was an obvious correlation between exploration and maps. As seen in Document I, the more people that explored, the more accurate the maps were became. The relationship goes the other way too. The more accurate the maps were, the better the explorer can judge where they were, which then allowed them to have a better sense of direction. The printing press played a huge role in the publication of maps.With the press, maps now looked the same, unlike before when they were drawn by hand, which a llowed for inconsistencies amongst copies of the same work. Once again, this highlights both consequences stated above: the press allowed the mass production of information and marked the transition script to printing. In conclusion, it can be clearly seen that the printing press revolutionized the world on a countless number of levels. It transformed the way people communicated and the way information was dispersed. The transition from script to print was huge because the press was far more efficient for publishing any kind of information.As a result, there could now be a mass production of information. It was made obvious, through the examples given, how mass production fueled the Protestant Reformation and perhaps even sparked the age of exploration. Taking all this information into account there is no doubt that the consequences of the printing press were that it marked the transition from script to printing and it allowed the mass production of information, which in turn allowe d ideas and information to spread over a large distance in a short period of time.

Public Companies Essays - Types Of Business Entity, Legal Entities

Public Companies Essays - Types Of Business Entity, Legal Entities Public Companies PUBLIC COMPANIES Public Companies are those which are listed on the stock exchange. The public may buy and sell shares in them. A public company will have the word 'limited' after the company name (usually abbreviated to Ltd). Characteristics The characteristics of a public company are that they are limited by shares and have limited liability. 'Limited by shares' means that shares in the company can be bought and sold freely (shares are featured in the stock-exchange). While 'limited liability' mean that in the event of company failure e.g. bankruptcy, the financial responsibility of the individual shareholders is restricted to the face value of his/her shares. In other words personal assets cannot be touched. Another characteristic of a public company is the Limited or Ltd after the companies name. It distinguishes between public and private companies clearly. Process involved in setting up In order to set up a public Company, 5 or more people need to follow the procedure stated in the Company Law Review Act 1998. That is, they need to fill out form 201 (refer to Appendix 1) from the Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC). This form contains particulars of the initial members, office holders and office addresses. In the past, companies had to have a memorandum and Articles of Association. Now, they may need either a single set of rules known as a 'constitution' or have no constitution and rely on basic rules of internal management set out in the law known as 'Replaceable rules'. These rules can be replaced by a constitution at any time, hence it's name. When a company is registered ASIC issues the company with a unique nine-digit number called the Australian Company Number (ACN). After the issuing of the ACN number, the company is officially registered as a Public Company. The operation of a public company has it's advantages and it's disadvantages due to it's function and it's influences from it's external environment. Advantages J The shareholders have limited liability J The company has perpetual succession (if the main owner dies, their shares can be sold to other people or his/her nominated succession). J Shares are easily bought and sold on the stock exchange. J Finance can be easily arranged. J The management normally has a large degree or experience and expertise in a variety of fields. J It is a legal entity. Disadvantages L Government regulations effect company activity L There are usually limits placed on the power of the board of directors. L Companies can be expensive to maintain and organise. L the ease with which shares can be bought and sold may sometimes be a disadvantage because if every shareholder sells their shares, due to an unstable period in the economy, the value of the company will decline. Cessation Cessation of a public company means that the company stops trading. One reason a company may stop trading is because it can not pay it debts. It is the liquidated which means it's assets are distributed to it's shareholders according to the number of shares each person has. Sometimes, when the company has difficulty paying it's debts, the courts may appoint a receiver to decide if the business should continue to trade or close it down. The receiver is an independent manager, usually an accountant. Bibliography business and accounting By Pat Whoo Copyright 1997

Controversy Essay

Controversy Essay Controversy Essay Controversy Essay: Choosing Controversy Essay Topics To write a good controversy essay worthy of attention, you need to start the process of writing with a careful choice of a good topic. The first and the most important issue to keep in mind is that such topics as abortions, gay adoption, or animal experimentation are no longer interesting to explore. Your instructor wants to see fresh topics and fresh ideas. Therefore, start your research and be creative: One of the important elements of controversy essay writing is the value of being indifferent to the topic. While it is hardly possible to have no opinion on the issue, avoid choosing the topics that make you too passionate. For example, if are strongly against smoking in public places, you will fail writing a good controversy essay at least because you have to present both sides of the argument. The second critical aspect of successful controversy essay writing is organization of your ideas. The most recommended structure is the following: introduction, your strongest point, second strongest point, opposing point, refutation, third strongest point, and conclusion that restates your key points. Of course, you will not succeed in writing strong controversy essay if you do not include specific examples to support your points. Therefore, devote enough time to read different articles, look through books, and surf the Internet. Do not forget about citing all borrowed information! You do not want to get F for plagiarizing, do you? Use Custom Essay Writing Services for Your Benefits If writing a controversy essay is a real headache for you, we offer an opportunity to take advantage of our professional custom essay writing services. We will help you with the choice of the topic, outline, research, writing, and editing. Therefore, you do not have to spend endless hours in painful search of the topic and drafting of your controversy essay. Of course, you should never commit yourself to the service that raises concerns about legitimacy. We are among the few sites that fulfill their promises. We meet deadlines and we do not work with ESL writers. Working with our professional team, you get the best results within the shortest deadline. Yes, we can deliver a 5-page controversy essay in 24 hours! It should be noted that we do not resell delivered essays. In other words, your essay is original and written from scratch. Moreover, no client will ever be able to get access to your controversy essay. We treasure the trust of our clients, and try our best to meet requirements of every customer. Read more: Science Research Paper Research Papers Proposal Research Paper Thesis Research Paper Ideas Research Paper Format

Asserting Ethnic Identity and Power Through Language Essay Example for Free

Asserting Ethnic Identity and Power Through Language Essay Week-1 The linguistic ideology at work here is founded both on the concept of the ‘mother tongue’ as well as on the ‘one nation, one language’ principle. Communities on the western side of the border are not interested in learning the language of their eastern neighbors. Eastern communities, on the other hand, are strongly motivated to learn western languages. The importance attributed to English as the ‘language of globalization’ is common to both sides. We can actually say that ‘language’ is a very hot and recurrent issue for some communities: namely the German-speaking community in Bernstein (D), the Czech-speaking community in Vejprty (CS), the German-speaking and Slovenian-speaking communities in Eisenkappel/Z? elezna Kapla (A),etc. The term ‘mother tongue’ is often used – forms the ‘way of thinking’ of its speakers, and thus the different ‘mentalities’ and ‘national characters’ are connected with the use of different languages. Many informants are convinced that it is the ‘mother tongue’ which determines thought, social behavior, and exhibition or control of affection and emotions. Thus the confrontation between languages automatically becomes a clash of mentalities. For example, the German-speaking community in Ba? renstein finds there is a relation between the insurmountable difficulty in pronouncing and learning the Czech language and the incomprehensibility of the words Czech-speaking people produce. People in western communities explain this widespread knowledge by saying that ‘the Others’ need to know my language, because my language is the superior One. We can also find indices of implicit prestige in many interview quotes, like ‘my language is useful to find a job’, ‘my language is more international than theirs’, ‘it represents a symbol of upward social mobility’; ‘the importance of my language forces them to learn it, and in this way they show practical sense, intelligence and cleverness, because they well know that the knowledge of the languages spoken on both sides of the border offers more professional and economic opportunities’. People are not generally interested in learning the language of the ‘Other’, and the reason is, as we have already seen, its ‘uselessness’, or its low value on the ‘language market’. They only learn what they need in their commercial transactions. Europe is a multilingual continent in which the tension between linguistic pluralism and assimilation is quite evident at present. Week-2 The topic for this week was â€Å"Creation of a Sense of Belonging through Language†, which we found very much interesting as we have to present our own explanation, views and thoughts. The topic is about Finland, Iceland and Latvia. Firstly we discussed about Finland that Swedish-speaking people along the coastlines, spoke a non-Scandinavian language, namely Finnish. The Finnish language was to become the most effective medium in the nation-building process as well as the most important criterion in creating an awareness of a collective identity. Language became a defining characteristic towards the ‘outside’ and a communicative driving force on the ‘inside’ within the great diversity of local and regional cultures. We could say that for the process of nation-building in Finland during the 19th century two main deficits had to be overcome: sovereign state structures had to be developed and an individual Finnish national consciousness had to be formed. In the process of spreading a Finnish national consciousness – a development often associated with the term ‘awakening’ as in a religious experience – the main focus was directed towards the common people, their language and culture. Finland’s modest cultural life, Finnish had gained the status of a modern cultural and scientific language. The civil servants, scholars, and many artists, continued to use Swedish as their language of communication and publication. But Finnish steadily gained ground. Many people were already, or became, bilingual. The accusation that Finnish was ‘too primitive’ was defeated by generating new terms, which proved that the language was innovative and possessed the potential for development. In the discussion about Iceland by Halfdanarson. The text tells a story of Icelandic nationalism and the struggle for independence of Iceland under Danish rule. Halfdanarson points out the rare case of Icelandic nationalism, and it’s non-violent nature. In fact, according to the article, both Iceland’s struggle for independence and the Danish reactions to it were both surprisingly pacific in nature, partly because of the idea of shared past and cultural heritage between the two countries. There are certain elements in common with the case study of Iceland and Herder’s text, such as the idea of mystic, shared past of a nation, the role of the single language of a social group forming the nation and so on. I think especially in cases like Iceland, language and linguistic identity have essential role in formation of national identity. Iceland is isolated, both in geographical terms as an island in the middle of Atlantic ocean and in terms of language. Although Icelandic is a language related to scandinavian languages, it still differes from them quite a lot. And lastly There was a question that is it possible to have a single language in whole Europe? We think its not possible to have a single langage in the whole Europe as there are many different countries with their own languages from last hundreds of years. In Europe, People communicate with each other using the shared language of their group. The group might be as small as a couple (married or unmarried partners, twins, mother and daughter etc. who share a ‘private’ language where only they know the meaning of some words) or as large as a nation, where everyone understands the allusions in their shared language (often allusions to shared history, to contemporary events, to media people of fact or fiction etc). The ‘secret’ language of the smallest group and the ‘public’ language of the national group are two ‘varieties’ of the same language. Every social group, large or small, has its own language variety, (regional groups have varieties of the national language (as opposed to regional or minority languages) which are usually called ‘dialects’) and there is overlap among all the varieties. However there is a possibility to use English as a second language as use of English gives a considerable advantage to the 13 % of EU citizens who are native English speakers, and to speakers of closely related languages (German, Dutch, Danish and Swedish), over all other Europeans. Week-3 In the week 3, we learned about ‘Language and subjective identity’. The two articles were on Franz Kafka and Simone de Beauvoir. Franz Kafka was German though he never lived among the Germans. He was then living in Prague, Czech. Hence Kafka knew both Czech & German languages. But, he preferred Czech Language as he was of the view that one could express his/her feeling in a better way in a particular language. In this case, he thought that Czech was a better language than German to express his feelings. Franz Kafka was in love with Czech translator Milena Jesenka. He used to demand Milena to write him letters in Czech language than German. He belived in a approach â€Å"belongs to a language†. When Milena replied his letters in Czech, he believed that Czech was much more affectionate, which removes all the uncertainties, he could see his lover more clearly, the movements of her body, her hands quickly which almost resembled as they both are meeting. This shows how Kafka prefered Czech more than German. Kafka encouraged his favourite sister Ottla in her marriage to Josef David, a Czech Catholic, against the opposition of parents and relatives, and wrote affectionately to his new brother-in-law in fluent Czech. For Prague Jews of Kafka’s generation, language and identity could be painfully dissonant. In Kafka’s case, this dissonance reached deep into his own family, conferring an alien quality on the most intimate of human relationships. Franz Kafka died of tuberculosis in 1924. He is buried beside his parents in the family plot in Prague’s New Jewish Cemetery. Simone de Beauvoir is a French Women. She was French writer, political activist, feminist, and social theorist. She gave her whole life for feminine rights and equality with men in Society. Beauvoir was an outstanding student. She did her postgraduate work at the Ecole Normale Superieure, the top postgraduate program in France, where she met Jean Paul Sartre. When World War II broke out in September 1939, Sartre was called for military service. He became a prisoner of war when the French army surrendered, but he was released and both Beauvoir and Sartre participated in the resistance, and after the Vichy Regime dismissed Beauvoir from her teaching position, she began a novel about the resistance. When the war ended, Beauvoir and Sartre became part of a group of leading French intellectuals, who concerned themselves with the perceived failures of modern French society. they founded Les Temps modernes as a means to explain their social and cultural views. At the same time, Sartre suggested to Beauvoir that she undertake a book on the status of women, and she published, La deuxieme sexe (The Second Sex). This was her most famous, and influential book. It became a sourcebook of modern feminism, particularly in the United States for later feminist thinkers such as Betty Friedan and Gloria Steinem. De Beauvoir used very specific and effective and powerful words to underline her matter. She is willing to deploy language and words towards others, because she knows about â€Å"a manner in which her body and her relation to the world are modified through the action of others than herself†. Asserting Ethnic Identity and Power Through Language. (2016, Oct 22). 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Company Aytch Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Company Aytch - Essay Example aining of the soldiers in the face of the new technology in the field of war, this left horrific and devastating experiences to many people and influenced many young men to volunteer to fight through different companies, among them was Sam R.Watkins who was in the rank of common soldier and depicted as immortality through his 1882 memoir Company Aytch. The initial deployment of the troops took place on the proceeding day leaving the local residents in a dilemma whether to leave or to stay in their village, on the eve of the battle upon drawing picket duty, Watkins was surprised to discover a Union guard ‘Yankee’ that was on duty across the road, as Watkins explains that on that night they were not enemies â€Å"†¦We got very friendly †¦ and made a raid upon a citizen’s pantry where we captured a bucket of honey, a pitcher of sweet milk, and three or four biscuits† (Watkins 12) Watkins believes that the locals in this village were taken by surprise. Watkins recalls in his memoirs that in the following morning that a line was drawn between Perryville and the Yankee army, on the other side of the Yankees, they raised blue flag, ready for the war with their dogs threatening to attack, but the war did not start until 12 o’clock (Watkins 15). They were marching in a corn field when the Yankees opened their war dogs on them, they were attacked from the three lines from which they were able to counter attack killing every of their opponent mostly by the use of Napoleon guns, this resulted to many killings totalling to 55,396 federal soldiers and 16800 Braggs confederate soldiers (Watkins 27). One of the greatest characteristic of this war, was that for the first time, Henry Rifle was employed, the rifle was sold in Louisville and it is thought that it was bought by a soldier in Terrills, repeating rifle such as Spencer and Henry were considered to have been the most advanced infantry weapon , in fact the Henry which was an advancement of Winchester, was

The surprising fact about the 17th century Spain is not so much its Essay

The surprising fact about the 17th century Spain is not so much its decline as a great power but its survival for so long.' Do y - Essay Example Spain was able to survive. The Spanish government’s decline as a great power is not as important as the how long Spain continues to survive until the end of the 17th century. Henry Arthur (1980) emphasized the English general Oliver Cromwell’s death in 1658 had inflicted a huge loss on the English Army as well as the strength of the French army. Cromwell had joined forces with the French to prevent the Stuarts from regaining the throne in England. The French were interested in the alliance because they did not want the Stuarts to return the English throne. History shows that the Stuarts did return to the English Throne in 1658 after the political turmoil that erupted in England in the same year. When King Charles II ascended the English throne, England stopped its attacks on Spain. Initially, the English commander, Cromwell, sought Catholic France’s alliance in order to defeat Catholic Spain because Cromwell believes God prefers that the Protestant religion shoul d flourish in Europe. Cromwell initially attacked the Spanish trade and treasure routes. Cromwell tried to attack the Spanish forced on Hispaniola. However, the Cromwell attacked failed because the Spanish defensive forces in Hispaniola were too strong compared to the incoming English army. Defeated, Cromwell’s forces fled and reached the shores of Jamaica in May 1655. Overall, the English Admiral Robert Blake attacks did not completely win the war against Spain. The English – French alliance was entitled the Treaty of Paris was signed in March 1657. The treaty emphasised France will join England in attacking Spain in the battle of Flanders. The treaty specified that English will send an estimated 4,900 soldiers and France will send 19,900 soldiers to fight the Spanish soldiers. The war reached the Gravelines, Mardyck and Dunkirk localities where Spain had more gains compared to the English side. Further, during Spain’s war against England, England suffered huge losses. The Spanish counter attack had eradicated the English shipping trade. In the same light, Spain also suffered huge losses when Admiral Blake blockaded Cadiz. The blockade caused a stoppage of the Spanish economy which generated most of its cash inflows from imported silver and gold coming from the Americas. Spain’s King Philip IV was extremely worried with the English Attacks in Italy, Flanders, and Portugal. Furthermore, William Guthrie (2003) reiterated the 30 years French – Spanish war precipitated from the Habsburg rivalry. France attacked Spain at Les Avins in 1635. In response, the Spanish forces used its Southern Netherlands forces to implement speedy counter attacks on French defensive positions. The counterattacks had literally maimed the French economy. In 1643, the French army crushed the previously invincible Spanish army in Rocroi, Northern France. During this time, the Catalonia revolts and the Portuguese revolts had undermined the strength of the Spanish army. During this war, the Spanish forces were trapped between the French forces on one side and the Dutch forces on the other side. As expected, the Spanish forces were trounced by the advancing French forces at the battle of Lens. However, could not overrun the losing Spanish forces strategically entrenched in Flanders. The In the Peace of Westphalia, France was given the Alsace territory. Likewise, Spain